Battle of Talavera - Napoleonic Wars Battle of Talavera - Peninsular War Battle of Talavera

Battle of Talavera - Conflict: The Battle of Talavera was fought during the Peninsular War which was part of the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815). Battle of Talavera - Date: The fighting at Talavera occurred on July 27-28, 1809. Armies Commanders: England Spain Sir Arthur WellesleyGeneral Gregorio de la Cuesta20,641 British34,993 Spanish France Joseph BonaparteMarshal Jean-Baptiste JourdanMarshal Claude-Victor Perrin46,138 men Battle of Talavera - Background: On July 2, 1809, British forces under Sir Arthur Wellesley crossed into Spain after defeating the corps of Marshal Nicolas Soult. Advancing east, they sought to unite with Spanish forces under General Gregoria de la Cuesta for an attack on Madrid. In the capital, French forces under King Joseph Bonaparte prepared to meet this threat. Assessing the situation, Joseph and his commanders elected to have Soult, who was then in the north, advance to cut Wellesleys supply lines to Portugal, while the corps of Marshal Claude Victor-Perrin advanced to block the allied thrust. Battle of Talavera - Moving to Battle: Wellesley united with Cuesta on July 20, 1809, and the allied army advanced on Victors position near Talavera. Attacking, Cuestas troops were able to force Victor to retreat. As Victor withdrew, Cuesta elected to pursue the enemy while Wellesley and the British remained at Talavera. After marching 45 miles, Cuesta was compelled to fall back after encountering Josephs main army at Torrijos. Outnumbered, the Spanish rejoined the British at Talavera. On July 27, Wellesley sent forward General Alexander Mackenzies 3rd Division to aid in covering the Spanish retreat. Due to confusion in the British lines, his division suffered 400 casualties when it was attacked by the French advance guard. Arriving at Talavera, the Spanish occupied the town and extended their line north along a stream known as the Portina. The Allied left was held by the British whose line ran along a low ridge and occupied a hill known as the Cerro de Medellin. In the center of the line they built a redoubt which was supported by the General Alexander Campbells 4th Division. Intending to fight a defensive battle, Wellesley was pleased with the terrain. Battle of Talavera - The Armies Clash: Arriving on the battlefield, Victor immediately send forward the division of General Franà §ois Ruffin to seize the Cerro even though night had fallen. Moving through the darkness, they nearly reached the summit before the British were alerted to their presence. In the sharp, confused fight that followed, the British were able to throw back the French attack. That night, Joseph, his chief military advisor Marshal Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, and Victor plotted their strategy for the next day. Though Victor favored launching a massive assault on Wellesleys position, Joseph decided on making limited attacks. At dawn, the French artillery opened fire on the Allied lines. Ordering his men to take cover, Wellesley awaited the French assault. The first attack came against the Cerro as Ruffins division moved forward in columns. Moving up the hill, they were met with heavy musket fire from the British. After enduring this punishment the columns disintegrated as the men broke and ran. With their attack defeated, the French command paused for two hours to assess their situation. Electing to continue the battle, Joseph ordered another assault on the Cerro while also sending forward three divisions against the Allied center. While this attack was ongoing, Ruffin, supported by troops from General Eugene-Casimir Villattes division were to attack the north side of the Cerro and attempt to flank the British position. The first French division to attack was that of Leval which struck the junction between the Spanish and British lines. After making some progress, it was thrown back by intense artillery fire. To the north, Generals Horace Sebastiani and Pierre Lapisse assaulted General John Sherbrookes 1st Division. Waiting for the French to close to 50 yards, the British opened fire in one massive volley staggering the French attack. Charging forward, Sherbrookes men drove back the first French line until being stopped by the second. Hit by heavy French fire, they were forced to retreat. The gap in the British line was quickly filled by part of MacKenzies division and the 48th Foot which was led into place by Wellesley. These forces held the French at bay until Sherbrookes men could be reformed. To the north, Ruffin and Villattes attack never developed as the British moved into blocking positions. They were handed a minor victory when Wellesley ordered his cavalry to charge them. Surging forward, the horsemen were stopped by a hidden ravine that cost them around half their strength. Pressing on, they were easily repulsed by the French. With the attacks defeated, Joseph elected to retire from the field despite requests from his subordinates to renew the battle. Battle of Talavera - Aftermath: The fighting at Talavera cost Wellesley and the Spanish around 6,700 dead and wounded (British casualties: 801 dead, 3,915 wounded, 649 missing), while the French incurred 761 dead, 6,301 wounded and 206 missing. Remaining at Talavera after the battle due to a lack of supplies, Wellesley still hoped that the advance on Madrid could be resumed. On August 1, he learned that Soult was operating in his rear. Believing Soult to only have 15,000 men, Wellesley turned and marched to deal with the French marshal. When he learned that Soult had 30,000 men, Wellesley backed off and began withdrawing towards the Portuguese border. Though the campaign had failed, Wellesley was created Viscount Wellington of Talavera for his success on the battlefield. Selected Sources British Battles: Battle of TalaveraPeninsular War: Battle of TalaveraHistory of War: Battle of Talavera

The Impact Of Organizations Activities On The Environment

An organization, according to the definition is a separate living individual, which can and can be affected by its surrounding environment. The effect of the organizations activities can directly or indirectly affect the environment in many ways. The focus has now been shifted from financial information and now companies put a huge emphasis on their non-financial aspects as well. Changing attitude of the government in major countries of the world, their acknowledgment of this environmental crisis has given many countries to take steps and to put forward regulations against the organizations that are affecting its environment negatively. Leaders are not necessarily managers. A leader is the one who steers the ship of the organization. In a†¦show more content†¦Many organizations are focusing towards corporate greening now, making operation cost effective as every organization is set to achieve one goal that is maximization of shareholders wealth, so it has become important to find a mix between being cost effective and environmental friendly. Many major organizations have started to accept corporate greening as a major priority as it also creates a marketing factor and gives the organization a responsible citizen status in the society. Corporate greening depends to a substantial degree on the commitment and administration of top supervisors who are in a position to execute approaches and rehearse that can enhance ecological execution. The awareness of Environmental leadership has been generally recognized for quite a while in both business and government . The green entrepreneurial pioneer must be a trend-setter who accepts that the business that he or she is heading must hold onto green values as a component of its center character, and that these green qualities can aid the business in picking up preferences in the business sector. Green pioneers must have an uplifting disposition to guide the venture they lead to a dream without bounds that will be better for the nature, for the environment. In like manner, a green venture is not the same as organizations that are not green and, consequently, green pioneers must merge and reinforce their individual values and incorporate these into ecofriendly inside

Pop Art Essay Example Example For Students

Pop Art Essay Example Pop art is a term used to describe popular art, the word popular meaning everyday life. Pop art also varied greatly, from soup cans to comic book art to abstract art. Pop artistis often have satirical or playful intents. This would mean that a pop artist tries to express himself through humorous art. An early pop artist was Andy Warhol, who is known for his drawing of a can of soup.He was American and was born in 1928. He died in 1987. His works can be found at the Whitney museum of American Art and at the Museum of Modern Art. Another American pop artist was Roy Lichenstein. He was born in 1923 and is still living. His work can also be found at the Whitney Museum of modern art and the Museum of Modern Art. Another pop artist was James Rosenquist. He, too, was American. He was born in 1933 and has yet to die. His works may be foundat the Museum of Modern Art and at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Yet another American pop artist was Larry Rivers. He was born in 1923 and still lives. His work may be found at the Metropolitian Museum of Art. Robert Rauschienburg was also an American pop artist. He was born in 1925, and, like most of the other artists in this essay, still ives. His work may be found at the Whitney Museum of Art and at the Modern Museum of Art. I chose to describe As I Opened Fire, by Roy Lichenstein. It was made in 1964 and is the the third of three panels in a narrative arrangement. As I Opened Fire is magna on a canvas which is 68 X 56. Its composition reminds of a comic book. It shows 2 guns firing of the side of a ship, with letters on the top saying That my ship was below them The color scheme was very interesting. For backround, Lichenstein used grey-blue. For the guns he used white, grey, and black, giving them a three-dimensional look using shadowing. For the fire coming out of the guns he uses white, orange, and red, making use of complementary colors. The mood is aggressive and warlike, in some way indicating that the ship was part of a surprise attack on an enemey.This picture reminds me of comic book art, in both mood and composition. To me, pop art signifies the most recent type of art. Andy Warhol liked to draw and average soup can. I like to draw desks. Pop art is more complex than earlier types of art, if not in composition and color, in mood. It can express many more things than portraits can, and in more interesting ways.

Personality and Leadership Essay Example

Personality and Leadership Essay A Comparing Traits and Skills Theories Impact on Leadership Robert L. Reese Grand Canyon university October 1st, 2014 Introduction In this review (see table 1) two empirical articles were compared, one that reviewed Trait Theory of leadership, and the other that reviewed Skills Theory of leadership. Personality and Leadership: A Qualitative and Quantitative Review, authored by Timothy A. Judge, Joyce E. Bono, Reams lies, and Megan W. Gerhardt conducted quantifiable evaluations of the connection between character traits and Leadership. The rationale of this research study was the existence of unreliable and inadequate results from prior examinations that have, until recently, provided a deficient configuration for categorizing and consolidating qualities. The authors were able to build a strong case based for their approach; by using the five-factor model of personality as a unifying structure to predict relationships between character traits and leadership. Additionally, there were relationships containing several standards were used, because of the apprehension with past personality trait research as to whether comprehensive or precise character traits forecast leadership? The article further investigates the comparative projective power of wide-ranging versus precise measures of these five traits (Timothy A. Judge, 2002). The leadership skills strapless: Leadership skill requirements across organizational levels the authors Troy V. Uniform, Michael A. Champion, Frederick P. Morrison; endeavors to not classify the features of leaders (that has had a varying history of success), but instead focuses attention directly on the job requirements of the leader, as well as the skills it squires, not focusing on the person. We will write a custom essay sample on Personality and Leadership specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Personality and Leadership specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Personality and Leadership specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer A further consideration of the skills required for leadership across an organizations level is examined by Identifying four distinctive classifications of leadership skill requirements that occur across structural levels. According to this article, the requirements for leadership are described as being stratified on one hand, yet a complex of various classifications. As such, skills needed for leadership can be described using a strapless selling the stratification and multifaceted nature of the skills required for leadership and the correlation within The research questions posed by Judge, et. Al (2002) in the research examination of the five-factor model of personality and how this model relates to leadership : 1 What are the associations between personality traits and leadership? 2. ) What is the overall connection among the Big Five character traits and leadership? (the Big Five character traits are defined in this article as: Neurotics, Extroversion, Openness, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness) 3. ) What is the relationship that lower level personality constructs have to leadership? (Timothy A. Judge, 2002) In the research inducted Uniform, et. Al. Several questions were posed in the form of hypotheses: (1) Will the Cognitive, Interpersonal, Business, and Strategic skill categories be empirically distinguishable in relation leadership? (2) How will Leadership skills requirements will vary by skill category such that Cognitive skills will be needed the greatest amount, followed by Interpersonal, Business, and Strategic skills, respectively? (3) Will Cognitive, Interpersonal, Business, and Strategic skill requirements will be positively related to the Jobs level in the organization? How will the skills required in leadership interact within different organizational level? For example: a. Which skill requirements will be more strongly related to organizational level; strategic, cognitive, interpersonal, and/or business skills; b. Will the business skill requirements needed of leaders be more strongly related to organizational level than cognitive or interpersonal skills; and c. Will the interpersonal skill requirements needed for leaders be more strongly related to organizational level than cognitive skills? (Troy V. Uniform, 2007 ). Sample Populations The two articles reviewed used different methods with different characteristics and or qualities, as well as examining two distinctly different theories related to leadership. Judge, et. Al. (2002) samples consisted of 1023 professional employees within international agencies of the United States government. These people were working within five different career fields and encompassed 1 56 different countries.. The organizational positions examined included people that were involved in supervision of the purchasing of goods and services, managing financial endeavors, and negotiating and monitoring contracts. The personnel were selected from different levels within the organization; Juniors with 1-5 years of experience, mid- level with 6-20 years, and seniors with 21+ years (Timothy A. Judge, 2002). In the research conducted by Uniform, et. Al. (2007) an examination 998 plus past studies was conducted. Searches of articles were conducted and this resulted in 1,447 abstracts, 263 Journal articles and 77 dissertations. Of these articles used sixty studies were examined with 73 independent samples in all, which contained 222 associations that were categorized into one or more of the traits. In addition the article, examined 20 studies relating self-esteem or locus of control, together with two of the 60 five-factor model studies. However when research on leadership (before 1950) failed to report the information necessary to obtain a linkage, these were excluded by the current research. Also, the articles omitted studies that defined leadership related to salary level, career success, or the person most liked by peers exclusively. Studies that were included in the examination, were studies defined as representing leader development or leadership effectiveness based on the authors Within the research study Personality and Leadership: A Qualitative and Quantitative Review (2002) Judge et. Al the following results were determined. First, Extroversion showed the most closely related correlation to leadership, then Conscientiousness and then Neurotics. Also, Openness to Experience showed a correlation with leadership but was the weakest correlation of the areas researched. This indicated confidence that the relationship of four of the Big Five traits were distinctive when examined across situations. Finally, Agreeableness presented a moderately weak connection with leadership. However, four characteristics displayed reasonably strong associations with leadership?sociability, dominance, achievement and dependability. Two personality traits, Extroversion and Openness, were significantly predictive of leadership across the criteria studied. Results in the Judge et. Al. (2002) study offers strong evidence in favor of the personality trait method and suggests that research on the characteristics of leadership has evolved (Timothy A. Judge, 2002). In the Uniform, et. Al. Search study of the leadership skill requirements across organizational levels, the results supported the four-factor model of dervish skill requirements and the question presents in Hypothesis number one. Cognitive skills were higher than Business skills although they both showed movement in the predicted directions and were not statistically noteworthy. Thus according to this study, hypothesis two was somewhat supported. Hypothesis three, through the research received full support, because leadership skill requirements increased with organizational level on which the leader was. Results indicated that the relationship between the skill requirements of leadership and organizational bevel was stronger for strategic skills than for interpersonal and cognitive skill requirements, and this provides partial support for hypothesis four (a). Hypothesis four (b) was fully supported within the research by the relationship demonstrated between skill level and organizational level being stronger for business skill requirements than for interpersonal and cognitive skill requirements. Finally, hypothesis four (c) was also completely supported, because the difference between the leadership skill requirements-to-organizational level correlation; was significant for interpersonal and cognitive skill requirements. Finally, Uniform, et. Al. Proposed a hypothetically rich leadership skills order, and tested this hierarchy in a sample of over 1000 lower, middle, and upper level leaders, these results provided support for the model and its key hypotheses (Troy V. Uniform, 2007 Conclusion Within their research study Personality and Leadership: A Qualitative and Quantitative Review (2002) Judge et. L. Searches were conducted for studies on personality traits-to-leadership relationship in two phases; (1) entering the keywords personality and leadership along with each of the Big Five traits in a database, (2) urinals were manually searched that were thought to be particularly relevant, then (3) the database was searched using leadership and 48 other traits such as; self- esteem, locus of control, modesty, and self-control that were known to have been studied as directly related to leadership (Bass, 1990) (Timothy A. Judge, 2002). The article, The leadership skills strapless: Leadership skill requirements across organizational levels by Uniform et. Al. (2007), examines previous conceptualizations of leadership skill requirements and suggests that this can be understood in terms of and (4) Strategic skills (Troy V. Uniform, 2007 The research study of Personality and Leadership: A Qualitative and Quantitative Review (2002) Judge et. Al. Discusses the following limitations. In the review and subsequent research it was found to be important to determine which traits are relevant, as well as why. Within this study these process oriented issues could not be addressed. According to the authors there are many situational reasons that may impact the validity of personality characteristics in actually predicting leadership. A drawback of the meta-analysis within the study was that there may be representative effects on the lower order rats. Specifically, personality traits within a particular Big Five dimension may be differentially connected to leadership across the settings. Judge, et. Al. (2002) point out using the example, that dominance may display greater association with leadership in student settings than in military or government settings (Timothy A. Judge, 2002). In Uniform, et. Al. Research study of the leadership skill necessities across structural levels, limitations were examined by looking toward what would be appropriate for future research. According to the authors future research will have to cake advantage of the conceptual and concrete findings and further experiment with the model in throughout other organizations. Furthermore, future research must refine management development, placement, and selection systems in within different organizations. Finally, other researchers should explore the degree to which these results can be replicated when other information is taken into consideration and determine the impact leadership skill requirements (Troy V. Uniform, 2007 ). References Bass, B. M. (1990). Bass and Goodwills handbook of leadership. New York: Free Press. Timothy A. Judge, J. E. (2002). Personality and Leadership: A Qualitative and Quantitative Review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 765-780. Troy V. Uniform, M. A. (2007 ). The leadership skills strapless: Leadership skill requirements across organizational levels. The Leadership Quarterly, 154-166. Appendix Comparison Matrix Article 1 Article 2 Title/Author(s) Personality and Leadership: A Qualitative and Quantitative Review Authors: Timothy A. Judge, Joyce E. Bono, Reams Lies, and Megan W. Gerhardt The leadership skills strapless: Leadership skill requirements across organizational levels Authors: Troy V. Uniform, Michael A. Champion, Frederick P. Morrison http://library. GU. Deed:2048/login? URL=http://search. Boycotts. Com. Library. GU. Deed: 2048/gin. Asps? Direct=truedb=bthAN=12130448site=eds-livescope=site http:// library. Cue. Deed:2048/login? URL=http://search. Boycotts. Com. Library. GU. Deed:2048/ login. Asps? Direct=truedb=bthAN=24385837site=eds-livescope=site Purpose of the Study What is the authors rationale for selecting this topic? Does he build a strong case? The purpose of this article was to provide a quantitative review of the relationship teen personality and Leadership. The rationale for this study is; the inconsistent and disappointing results from previous reviews are that, until recently, we have lacked a taxonomic structure for classifying and organizing traits. I believe the authors build a strong case based on their approach; they use the five-factor model of personality as an organizing framework to estimate relations between personality and leadership. Furthermore, we estimate relations involving multiple criteria, also because there is much concern in personality research about whether broad or specific personality traits best redirect criteria (Block, 1995; Hough, 1992), they investigate the relative predictive power of broad versus specific measures of The Big Five traits. Focus is shifted from the person holding the Job (I. E. , the leader) to the Job itself. Thus, instead of attempting to identify the characteristics of leaders (which has had a checkered history of success), the focus is squarely on the Job of the leader, and the skills it requires. We seek to further our understanding of leadership skill requirements across organizational levels by identifying four distinct categories of leadership skill acquirement that emerge differentially across organizational levels. Leadership skill requirements are often described as being stratified by organizational level and a complex of multiple categories. As such, leadership skill requirements across organizational levels can be usefully described using a strapless. The term strapless captures the stratified and complex nature of the leadership skill requirements and their relationship with level in the organization. Research Question(s) What question(s) does the author present? They present these as possible questions but not directly as questions: What is the engages between personality and Leadership? What is the overall relationship between the Big Five traits and leadership? Relationship of lower order personality constructs to leadership? Hypotheses: (1) The Cognitive, Interpersonal, Business, and Strategic skill categories will be empirically distinguishable. (2) Leadership skill requirements will vary by skill category such that Business, and Strategic skills, respectively. (3) Cognitive, Interpersonal, Business, and Strategic skill requirements will be positively related to the Jobs level in the organization. 4) Leadership skill requirements will interact with organizational level such that: a. Strategic skill requirements will be more strongly related to organizational level than Cognitive, Interpersonal, and Business skill requirements; b. Business skill requirements will be more strongly related to organizational level than Cognitive or Interpersonal skill requirements; and c. Interpersonal skill requirements will be more strongly related to organizational level than Cognitive skill requirements. Literature Review How is this organized? What are the main themes found in the review? Who are the main authors used? They conducted searches for studies on the personality- leadership relationship in two stages; (1) first entering the keywords personality and leadership and each of the Big Five traits and leadership in the Psychology database, (2) manually searched Journals thought to be particularly relevant, (3) searched the database using leadership and 48 additional traits (e. G. , self-esteem, locus of control, modesty, and self-control) known to have been studied in relationship to leadership (Bass, 1990). Previous conceptualizations of leadership skill requirements (Connelly et al. , 2000; Kananga Miser, 1992; Katz Kahn, 1978; Luau, Newman, Broadening, 1980; Mahoney, Jeered, Carroll, 1965; Integers, 1973; Uniform, Marks, Connelly, Carrot, Ritter-Palmtop, 2000; Carrot, 2001) suggest they can be understood in terms of four general categories: (1) Cognitive skills, (2) Interpersonal skills, (3) Business skills, and (4) Strategic skills. Table 1 summarizes how past research into leadership skill requirements are related to these four categories. Sample Population(s) What group(s) is/are being studied? 998 studies; (2) This search resulted in 1,447 abstracts, (3) the remaining 263 Journal articles and 77 doctoral dissertations, Sixty studies (73 independent samples in all), containing 222 correlations that were classified into one or more of the five-factor traits, met these criteria. Additionally, 20 studies involving self-esteem or locus of control was coded, including two of the 60 five-factor model studies noted above. Early studies on leadership (pre-1950) failed to report the data necessary to obtain a career success, or the person most liked by peers. We also excluded self-reports of leadership. In terms of the criterion, studies were coded as representing leader emergence or leadership effectiveness based on our a priori definitions. The sample consisted of 1023 professional employees working in an international agency of the U. S. Government. These employees were generalists working in five different career specialties in 156 different countries, including the United States. Administrative positions involved overseeing procurement of goods and services, managing financial operations, and negotiating and monitoring contracts with various external groups. The employees were sampled from three levels in the organization that will be offered to as Junior (1-5 years experience), mid-level (6-20 years), and senior (21+ years). Limitations What are the limitations of the study? Why can it only encompass so much? They have a relatively poor idea of not only which traits are relevant, but why. The study could not address these process oriented Issues. There are many situational factors that may moderate the validity of personality in predicting leadership. A limitation of the meta-analysis is that there may be nested representative effects involving the lower order traits. Specifically, traits within a Big Five dimension may be differentially associated with leadership across the study settings. For example, dominance may display greater associations with leadership in student settings than in military or government settings. Future research will take advantage of the conceptual and practical findings and further test the model in other organizations, as well as refine management development, placement, and selection systems in organizations. Future research should explore the extent to which the results replicate when other sources of information are drawn upon to determine the leadership skill Results/ Conclusions What did the author find through the study? Was the original question answered? Correlate of leadership. Conscientiousness and then Neurotics and Openness to Experience displayed the next strongest correlations with leadership. Indicating that we can be confident that the relationship of four of the Big Five traits to leadership is distinguishable from zero across situations. Finally, Agreeableness showed a relatively weak correlation with leadership. Four traits displayed moderately strong correlations with leadership?sociability, dominance, achievement and dependability. Two traits, Extroversion and Openness, were significantly predictive of leadership across the criteria. Results in this study provide strong evidence in favor of the trait approach and suggest that we have come a long way since J. A. Murphy (1941) remarked, Leadership does not reside in the person (p. 674), and Jenkins (1947) concluded, No single trait or group of characteristics has been isolated which sets off the leader from members of his group (up. 74-75). This provides support for the four-factor model of leadership skill requirements and Hypothesis 1 . Cognitive was higher than Business. Other mean differences, although in the predicted direction, were not statistically significant. Thus, Hypothesis 2 was partially supported. Hypothesis 3 received full support. This relationship is illustrated in Fig. 2, which shows that leadership skill requirements increase with organizational level? Results indicate that the relationship between leadership skill requirements and organizational level is stronger for Strategic skill requirements than for Interpersonal and Cognitive skill requirements, providing partial support for Hypothesis AAA. Hypothesis b was fully supported in that the relationship between skill level and organizational level was stronger for Business skill requirements than for Interpersonal and Cognitive skill requirements. Finally, Hypothesis c was also fully supported, as the difference between the leadership skill-organizational level correlation for Interpersonal and Cognitive skill requirements was significant. The paper has proposed a theoretically rich leadership skills hierarchy, and tested that hierarchy in a sample of over 1000 lower, mid, and upper level leaders. Results provide support for the model and its key hypotheses.

A Survey of Agile Software Methodologies Based Upon Published Research Papers Essay Example

A Survey of Agile Software Methodologies: Based Upon Published Research Papers Essay A Survey of Agile Software Methodologies: based upon published research papers The ‘New Economy’ of the 90s made businesses more dynamic. The Information technology needs of these dynamic businesses were no longer static. Developers found traditional software methodologies less effective as they now faced frequently changing requirements. This increased their interest in agile methods, which were effective at managing changing requirements. Furthermore, agile methods could improve quality and reduce time simultaneously. Developers now not only have to make a choice between traditional and agile methodologies, they also need to select which agile methodology is best suited to address their requirements. This paper will help solve this problem by providing a survey of agile methodologies. This survey will help readers to decide which agile methodology can best serve their needs. The paper conducted the survey using a literature review of existing research. The survey found philosophical similarities amongst agile methods. It concludes that the combination of agile-methodologies and traditional-methodologies will continue to grow. INTRODUCTIONTHE purpose of software development methodologies is to effectively reuse the existing knowledge of software development [1],[2]. Traditional software development methodologies use process driven models. Developers followed specific procedures and plans to develop software. Traditional methodologies like the ‘water fall methodology’ assumed that requirements could be determined accurately before development of the software. These milestone-based approaches increased the time required to develop software. In the ‘new economy’ of 90s, time-to-market was a significant competitive advantage [3],[4],[5]. We will write a custom essay sample on A Survey of Agile Software Methodologies: Based Upon Published Research Papers specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on A Survey of Agile Software Methodologies: Based Upon Published Research Papers specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on A Survey of Agile Software Methodologies: Based Upon Published Research Papers specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Developers were asked to produce quality software in less time and had to work without clearly defined requirements. These new challenges caused developers to look towards agile software methodologies. Agile methodologies can reduce the time required to develop software and improve the software quality at the same time. Agile methods focus on people, their communication and working software. Agile methodologies focus less on processes and documentation. Agile methodologies have their own set of challenges [6]. The first challenge is to select the agile methodology best suited for a particular project. The wide range of choices offers developers flexibility however the developer needs good understanding of these methodologies to make a well informed decision. This paper provides a survey of agile software development methodologies to assist developers in making the correct decision. Some comparisons are already available in the literature [7], this paper additionally includes background knowledge and history of agile methodology. Instead of focusing on process details this paper explains the philosophy behind the processes. Section II of this paper explains the history of agile methodologies. Section III provides descriptions of various agile development methodologies. Based on the survey section IV draws various conclusions. Section V relates employability skills with agile methodologies. HistorySignificance of its HistoryThere is no universally acceptable definition of agile software methodologies. Understanding the evolution of agile software development methodologies can help understand the nature of agile development methods. History of software methodologiesThe success rate in software development was low in 1960s. The lessons learned from one project were hard to use in other projects. Developers felt the need to create a systematic approach to develop software to replicate the successes in software development. These systematic approaches for software development were called software development methodologies. System Development life cycle is the oldest software methodology which was developed in 1960. The waterfall methodology was first formally described in 1970. These methodologies described formal processes, which can help in the development of large information systems. History of Agile methodologiesThe history of agile methods can be traced back to 1974 [8] but at that time these methodologies were not considered mainstream. In the 90s, the world economy started to shift from a manufacturing based economy to a service based economy. Business requirements were hard to define and time-to-market was reduced. Time taken by software development using traditional approach meant loss of competitive advantage in areas where time-to-market was short. Agile methodologies reduced the time required to develop the software while improving the quality [9]. Several modern agile methods were developed in mid 90s. These methods included Scrum, Extreme Programming, Feature Driven Development, Adaptive and Dynamic Systems Development Method. It is expected that more agile methods will be developed in response to future requirement. Agile ManifestoDevelopers observed the similarities between modern software development methodologies like extreme programming, scrum and feature driven but there was no agreement over how to articulate these similarities. In 2001 a group of developers gather in Utah to discuss these new methodologies. They listed their four preferences which differentiated their approach from traditional software development approach. These preferences were [10]: Individuals and interactions over processes and tools Working software over comprehensive documentation Customer collaboration over contract negotiation Responding to change over following a plan These preferences do not imply complete absence of items mentioned in the later part of the dot points above. For example if documentation is completely absent in a project it can no longer be considered agile [11]. Based on the above mentioned preferences, participants of the meeting listed 12 principles of agile methodologies. These principles were [10]: Our highest priority is to satisfy the customer through early and continuous delivery of valuable software. Welcome changing requirements, even late in development. Agile processes harness change for the customers competitive advantage Deliver working software frequently, from a couple of weeks to a couple of months, with a preference for the shorter timescale. Business people and developers work together daily throughout the project. Build projects around motivated individuals, give them the environment and support they need and trust them to get the job done. The most efficient and effective method of conveying information with and within a development team is face-to-face conversation. Working software is the primary measure of progress. Agile processes promote sustainable development. The sponsors, developers and users should be able to maintain a constant pace indefinitely. Continuous attention to technical excellence and good design enhances agility Simplicity-the art of maximizing the amount of work not done is essential. The best architectures, requirements and designs emerge from self-organizing teams At regular intervals, the team reflects on how to become more effective, then tunes and adjusts its behaviour accordingly. Agile software methodologies were described by principles instead of processes or framework. Recently some authors have attempted to describe a conceptual framework to describe agile methodologies [12] . Agile methodologies focus on quickly delivering working software versions to the customer. The customer provides feedback to developers based upon this working software. Developers modify the software based upon this feedback. Developers continuously show the working software to the customer after making the required changes. Iterations are continued until customer is satisfied. This is achieved through flexibility, improved and increased communication amongst the team member and with clients and superior but simple technical design of the software [10]. Agile methods It is not possible to compile a comprehensive list of agile methods in the absence of a clear definition. This section discuses philosophy, processes, advantages and disadvantages of different agile methods. This paper provides various recommendations based on these discussions. Agile Modeling Agile Modeling is not an independent software development methodology but it is used for supplementing other methodologies. Agile Modeling shares the philosophy of face-to-face meetings, less documentations, simplicity and feedback with other agile methodologies. The build-first approach of agile software development negatively impacts the quality of the software-architecture and documentation. Agile Modeling can improve the quality of architecture and documentation by applying proven software engineering principles in an agile manner [13]. Instead of creating a comprehensive set of models and documentation Agile Modeling focuses on producing ‘sufficiently’ detailed models and documents[13]. In other words agile Modeling advocates for creating working models for software. The level of detail in a model is dictated by the context in which a model is being developed [14]. Agile Modeling is commonly used in combination with Extreme Programming, agile unified process or scrum[7]. Client feedback is sought as frequently as possible. The model and documents are updated in an incremental fashion. This incremental approach offers same philosophy as other agile software development methods, thus Agile Modeling can be integrated with other agile software development methods. This paper recommends using Agile Modeling in traditional software development methods where business requirements are stable but are hard to communicate. Agile Modeling techniques will help developers and clients to remain on the same page. Dynamic Systems Development Method IT projects share triple-constraint with other project management areas. Triple constraint implies that developers need a balance between time, resources and scope of a project. If developers want to change one, they need to adjust the other two. In DSDM (Dynamic Systems Development Method ) instead of fixing the features and varying time and resources, time and resources are fixed and features are changed [7]. DSDM was created by a consortium of organisations in 1995 [15]. They suggested developing software in five phases. The first two phases are non-iterative while the last three phases are iterative. The first two non-iterative phases are feasibility study and business study. The last three iterative phases are functional model iteration, design and build iteration and implementation [7]. DSDM implements ideas similar to other agile methodologies, these ideas include user involvement, frequent delivery, iteration and face-to-face communication. This paper recommends implementing the idea of changing the scope of a project in any software development methodology where time-to-market is a significant competitive advantage. Extreme ProgrammingIt is claimed that the extreme programming is the most commonly used agile methodology[16]. Extreme Programming like other agile methods is iterative in nature. In extreme programming, each iteration produces working and tested software. Each iteration focuses on one functional aspect of the client requirement. Extreme Programming starts with Exploration. The client explains requirements in the form of ‘stories’. The team starts developing the code. Development in the first phase is accompanied by the exploration of technologies which they will use in the system. During this time the client keeps on writing the ‘stories’. After completion of the first phase developers plan which ‘stories’ should be given priority. A schedule is developed based on these priorities. This phase is called the planning phase. After completion of the planning phase, working software is produced regularly. Software is produced using pair programming. After implementing a reasonable number of stories, the ‘production phase’ starts. In the ‘production phase’ extra testing is done. After the production phase, the maintenance phase starts. In this phase the existing system is maintained and simultaneously new developments are completed. Completion of all the computer stories is called the death phase. The death phase can also occur if software is not considered feasible at any stage. Some organisations have customized extreme programming techniques to meet specific requirements of their organisations [4]. Extreme Programming philosophy views the release phases from a client’s point of view. The releases are mapped with the client’s view of functionality by using the concept of a story. The client, who has little understanding of the software-architecture, finds this approach more natural to his/her world-view. This approach also helps in prioritization of functionality. So the development process produces software which contains high-value features. Extreme programming achieves productivity and quality by using concept of shared ownership of the code. Pair Programming technique is used to enable shared ownership. The code review is immediate. This also facilitates communication of knowledge amongst the team members [16]. This paper suggests that the concept of iteration based on customer stories and the concept of shared ownership of code might be treated independently of each other. Although extreme programming integrates these two approaches, these concepts can be used separately. Scrum Scrum provides a mechanism for interaction between team members instead of focusing on development techniques. It takes a middle ground between well-defined requirements and constantly changing requirements. Scrum freezes the requirements during a sprint lasting two to four weeks. Requirements are re-evaluated after the end of a sprint. This approach is useful when customer requirements are not clearly defined [17]. Scrum development is divided into three phases pre-game, development and post-game [18]. Planning and design is completed in the pre-game phase. A back-log created during this phase lists the incomplete tasks and assigns each task a priority. The development phase is completed using iterations. Each iteration is called a sprint and is two to three weeks long. Clients can not change back-log during a sprint. Short meetings are held daily before the start of the day. At the end of each sprint the back-log is examined. After clearing the back-log, the post-game phase starts. This phase includes testing, documentation, integration and deployment [7]. This paper recommends using pair programming in conjunction with scrum. This will improve the quality of the produced code and encourage shared responsibility amongst the team members. Feature Driven DevelopmentIt is claimed that the Feature Driven Development is suitable for development of critical systems [7]. Unlike other agile methodologies it builds a complete software architecture / model early in the development. It uses agility and iteration in its feature building phase. The use of comprehensive analysis and design allows it to use multiple teams working on different features simultaneously. This enables developers to use FDD in large teams developing critical systems. FDD starts with domain experts providing a walk through to the development team. The development team develops models for each area and simultaneously develops a model for the entire system. The development team uses these models and domain knowledge to build a comprehensive feature list and discusses the list with the client. After discussion and prioritization, the development team starts an iteration of planning and building features. FDD is useful for organisations which use waterfall methodology and want to adopt a more agile approach. The migration to FDD will pose less challenges compared to challenges associated with migrating to other agile methods [19]. If the FDD approach is adopted by small teams, this paper recommends using Agile Modeling as a supplement. Agile Modeling will help reduce the overheads generated by the FDD modelling phase, making it useful for small teams. It is further suggested that for large projects traditional requirement engineering should be used with some added agility [19]. ConclusionAgile methods are effective when teams are small, time-to-market is a significant competitive advantage and the requirements cannot be clearly defined at the start. The ‘New economy’ of 90s had all these elements. This led to an increase in the adoption of agile methods. The development of agile methodologies is part of a wider evolution of software development methodologies, with agile methodologies being the result of a continuous and distributed evolution which will remain hard to define. The focus of agile methodologies is on principles instead of precise processes. This will make it easier to integrate agile principles in traditional software development approaches. Communication methods which utilize tacit knowledge can be used in traditional software development approaches, where precisely defining requirements is time consuming. Early development of high priority features can also be integrated in traditional approaches. Agile methodologies like ‘Feature Driven Development’ will help increase the acceptance of agile methodologies in areas which require large teams and high quality. Many large organisations will customize specific agile methods to tailor these methodologies to meet their requirements. This means that the adoption of pure agile methods and use of agile principles in traditional software development methodologies will continue to grow. Employability skills Developers who use agile methods can improve their employability chances in multiple ways. Adoption of agile methodologies is increasing which means that developers experienced in agile methodologies are in short supply compared to the demand. Development using agile methodologies requires developers to have better then average skills [9]. Therefore developers who have experience in agile methods are considered better then average developers. In addition to these advantages developers using agile methods improve their generic employability skills. This section explains how agile methodologies are related to employability skills Communication skills Agile methodologies make up for the lack of comprehensive documentation by using intensive communication. Developers using agile methodologies improve their communication skills by interacting with clients and team members. Teamwork Agile methods lack detailed processes and the absence of detailed processes means that developers need to coordinate and work as a team. Detailed processes encourage bureaucratic working which discourages coordination. In agile methods developers need to coordinate their efforts on a regular basis in order to develop the software. Some agile methods like Extreme Programming use pair programming which requires extensive teamwork. Agile methods like scrum need daily meetings. Teamwork learned during agile development can be used at other careers. Problem SolvingAgile methods encourage creativity amongst team members. Developers are not bound by a certain process. They have the liberty to come up with the solution to both technical and decision making issues. Agile methodologies can be customized by developers. This further encourages creative thinking and problem solving. Self ManagementAgile methodologies encourage replacing central decision making with distributed decision making. This encourages developers to articulate their own ideas and vision. In software methodology like FDD developers take responsibility of their own class which encourages developers to use self management. Planning and organisingLack of detailed planning in agile methods does not imply absence of planning. Planning is an essential part of agile methods and agile methodologies help developers adopt pragmatic approaches towards planning. Agile methodologies prioritize software features and invest efforts in those features which bring more value to the client. This practice helps developers focus on high priority issues at their career. TechnologyFrequent release of working software encourages unit testing. Unit testing is usually done using automated methods. This encourages developers to develop and use technology for the development process. Agile methods like Feature Driven Development define a special role of toolsmith. The toolsmith’s responsibility is to use technology to develop tools for team members. Developers using agile methods understand the value of using technology in their careers. LearningThere is an opinion that learning is a core component of agile methodologies framework [12]. This opinion views agility as a continuous process. In each iteration, the developers’ learning is based on the results of the iteration and they use this learning in the next iteration. This learning activity enables developers to continuously improve the agile process. Learning activities associated with agile programming improve developer’s ability to learn at other jobs. Initiative and enterpriseAdapting to changing requirements is an integral part of agile methodologies. In the absence of a rigid process, developers are encouraged to take initiative and come up with solutions. A Survey of Agile Software Methodologies Based Upon Published Research Papers Essay Example A Survey of Agile Software Methodologies: Based Upon Published Research Papers Essay A Survey of Agile Software Methodologies: based upon published research papers The ‘New Economy’ of the 90s made businesses more dynamic. The Information technology needs of these dynamic businesses were no longer static. Developers found traditional software methodologies less effective as they now faced frequently changing requirements. This increased their interest in agile methods, which were effective at managing changing requirements. Furthermore, agile methods could improve quality and reduce time simultaneously. Developers now not only have to make a choice between traditional and agile methodologies, they also need to select which agile methodology is best suited to address their requirements. This paper will help solve this problem by providing a survey of agile methodologies. This survey will help readers to decide which agile methodology can best serve their needs. The paper conducted the survey using a literature review of existing research. The survey found philosophical similarities amongst agile methods. It concludes that the combination of agile-methodologies and traditional-methodologies will continue to grow. INTRODUCTIONTHE purpose of software development methodologies is to effectively reuse the existing knowledge of software development [1],[2]. Traditional software development methodologies use process driven models. Developers followed specific procedures and plans to develop software. Traditional methodologies like the ‘water fall methodology’ assumed that requirements could be determined accurately before development of the software. These milestone-based approaches increased the time required to develop software. In the ‘new economy’ of 90s, time-to-market was a significant competitive advantage [3],[4],[5]. We will write a custom essay sample on A Survey of Agile Software Methodologies: Based Upon Published Research Papers specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on A Survey of Agile Software Methodologies: Based Upon Published Research Papers specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on A Survey of Agile Software Methodologies: Based Upon Published Research Papers specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Developers were asked to produce quality software in less time and had to work without clearly defined requirements. These new challenges caused developers to look towards agile software methodologies. Agile methodologies can reduce the time required to develop software and improve the software quality at the same time. Agile methods focus on people, their communication and working software. Agile methodologies focus less on processes and documentation. Agile methodologies have their own set of challenges [6]. The first challenge is to select the agile methodology best suited for a particular project. The wide range of choices offers developers flexibility however the developer needs good understanding of these methodologies to make a well informed decision. This paper provides a survey of agile software development methodologies to assist developers in making the correct decision. Some comparisons are already available in the literature [7], this paper additionally includes background knowledge and history of agile methodology. Instead of focusing on process details this paper explains the philosophy behind the processes. Section II of this paper explains the history of agile methodologies. Section III provides descriptions of various agile development methodologies. Based on the survey section IV draws various conclusions. Section V relates employability skills with agile methodologies. HistorySignificance of its HistoryThere is no universally acceptable definition of agile software methodologies. Understanding the evolution of agile software development methodologies can help understand the nature of agile development methods. History of software methodologiesThe success rate in software development was low in 1960s. The lessons learned from one project were hard to use in other projects. Developers felt the need to create a systematic approach to develop software to replicate the successes in software development. These systematic approaches for software development were called software development methodologies. System Development life cycle is the oldest software methodology which was developed in 1960. The waterfall methodology was first formally described in 1970. These methodologies described formal processes, which can help in the development of large information systems. History of Agile methodologiesThe history of agile methods can be traced back to 1974 [8] but at that time these methodologies were not considered mainstream. In the 90s, the world economy started to shift from a manufacturing based economy to a service based economy. Business requirements were hard to define and time-to-market was reduced. Time taken by software development using traditional approach meant loss of competitive advantage in areas where time-to-market was short. Agile methodologies reduced the time required to develop the software while improving the quality [9]. Several modern agile methods were developed in mid 90s. These methods included Scrum, Extreme Programming, Feature Driven Development, Adaptive and Dynamic Systems Development Method. It is expected that more agile methods will be developed in response to future requirement. Agile ManifestoDevelopers observed the similarities between modern software development methodologies like extreme programming, scrum and feature driven but there was no agreement over how to articulate these similarities. In 2001 a group of developers gather in Utah to discuss these new methodologies. They listed their four preferences which differentiated their approach from traditional software development approach. These preferences were [10]: Individuals and interactions over processes and tools Working software over comprehensive documentation Customer collaboration over contract negotiation Responding to change over following a plan These preferences do not imply complete absence of items mentioned in the later part of the dot points above. For example if documentation is completely absent in a project it can no longer be considered agile [11]. Based on the above mentioned preferences, participants of the meeting listed 12 principles of agile methodologies. These principles were [10]: Our highest priority is to satisfy the customer through early and continuous delivery of valuable software. Welcome changing requirements, even late in development. Agile processes harness change for the customers competitive advantage Deliver working software frequently, from a couple of weeks to a couple of months, with a preference for the shorter timescale. Business people and developers work together daily throughout the project. Build projects around motivated individuals, give them the environment and support they need and trust them to get the job done. The most efficient and effective method of conveying information with and within a development team is face-to-face conversation. Working software is the primary measure of progress. Agile processes promote sustainable development. The sponsors, developers and users should be able to maintain a constant pace indefinitely. Continuous attention to technical excellence and good design enhances agility Simplicity-the art of maximizing the amount of work not done is essential. The best architectures, requirements and designs emerge from self-organizing teams At regular intervals, the team reflects on how to become more effective, then tunes and adjusts its behaviour accordingly. Agile software methodologies were described by principles instead of processes or framework. Recently some authors have attempted to describe a conceptual framework to describe agile methodologies [12] . Agile methodologies focus on quickly delivering working software versions to the customer. The customer provides feedback to developers based upon this working software. Developers modify the software based upon this feedback. Developers continuously show the working software to the customer after making the required changes. Iterations are continued until customer is satisfied. This is achieved through flexibility, improved and increased communication amongst the team member and with clients and superior but simple technical design of the software [10]. Agile methods It is not possible to compile a comprehensive list of agile methods in the absence of a clear definition. This section discuses philosophy, processes, advantages and disadvantages of different agile methods. This paper provides various recommendations based on these discussions. Agile Modeling Agile Modeling is not an independent software development methodology but it is used for supplementing other methodologies. Agile Modeling shares the philosophy of face-to-face meetings, less documentations, simplicity and feedback with other agile methodologies. The build-first approach of agile software development negatively impacts the quality of the software-architecture and documentation. Agile Modeling can improve the quality of architecture and documentation by applying proven software engineering principles in an agile manner [13]. Instead of creating a comprehensive set of models and documentation Agile Modeling focuses on producing ‘sufficiently’ detailed models and documents[13]. In other words agile Modeling advocates for creating working models for software. The level of detail in a model is dictated by the context in which a model is being developed [14]. Agile Modeling is commonly used in combination with Extreme Programming, agile unified process or scrum[7]. Client feedback is sought as frequently as possible. The model and documents are updated in an incremental fashion. This incremental approach offers same philosophy as other agile software development methods, thus Agile Modeling can be integrated with other agile software development methods. This paper recommends using Agile Modeling in traditional software development methods where business requirements are stable but are hard to communicate. Agile Modeling techniques will help developers and clients to remain on the same page. Dynamic Systems Development Method IT projects share triple-constraint with other project management areas. Triple constraint implies that developers need a balance between time, resources and scope of a project. If developers want to change one, they need to adjust the other two. In DSDM (Dynamic Systems Development Method ) instead of fixing the features and varying time and resources, time and resources are fixed and features are changed [7]. DSDM was created by a consortium of organisations in 1995 [15]. They suggested developing software in five phases. The first two phases are non-iterative while the last three phases are iterative. The first two non-iterative phases are feasibility study and business study. The last three iterative phases are functional model iteration, design and build iteration and implementation [7]. DSDM implements ideas similar to other agile methodologies, these ideas include user involvement, frequent delivery, iteration and face-to-face communication. This paper recommends implementing the idea of changing the scope of a project in any software development methodology where time-to-market is a significant competitive advantage. Extreme ProgrammingIt is claimed that the extreme programming is the most commonly used agile methodology[16]. Extreme Programming like other agile methods is iterative in nature. In extreme programming, each iteration produces working and tested software. Each iteration focuses on one functional aspect of the client requirement. Extreme Programming starts with Exploration. The client explains requirements in the form of ‘stories’. The team starts developing the code. Development in the first phase is accompanied by the exploration of technologies which they will use in the system. During this time the client keeps on writing the ‘stories’. After completion of the first phase developers plan which ‘stories’ should be given priority. A schedule is developed based on these priorities. This phase is called the planning phase. After completion of the planning phase, working software is produced regularly. Software is produced using pair programming. After implementing a reasonable number of stories, the ‘production phase’ starts. In the ‘production phase’ extra testing is done. After the production phase, the maintenance phase starts. In this phase the existing system is maintained and simultaneously new developments are completed. Completion of all the computer stories is called the death phase. The death phase can also occur if software is not considered feasible at any stage. Some organisations have customized extreme programming techniques to meet specific requirements of their organisations [4]. Extreme Programming philosophy views the release phases from a client’s point of view. The releases are mapped with the client’s view of functionality by using the concept of a story. The client, who has little understanding of the software-architecture, finds this approach more natural to his/her world-view. This approach also helps in prioritization of functionality. So the development process produces software which contains high-value features. Extreme programming achieves productivity and quality by using concept of shared ownership of the code. Pair Programming technique is used to enable shared ownership. The code review is immediate. This also facilitates communication of knowledge amongst the team members [16]. This paper suggests that the concept of iteration based on customer stories and the concept of shared ownership of code might be treated independently of each other. Although extreme programming integrates these two approaches, these concepts can be used separately. Scrum Scrum provides a mechanism for interaction between team members instead of focusing on development techniques. It takes a middle ground between well-defined requirements and constantly changing requirements. Scrum freezes the requirements during a sprint lasting two to four weeks. Requirements are re-evaluated after the end of a sprint. This approach is useful when customer requirements are not clearly defined [17]. Scrum development is divided into three phases pre-game, development and post-game [18]. Planning and design is completed in the pre-game phase. A back-log created during this phase lists the incomplete tasks and assigns each task a priority. The development phase is completed using iterations. Each iteration is called a sprint and is two to three weeks long. Clients can not change back-log during a sprint. Short meetings are held daily before the start of the day. At the end of each sprint the back-log is examined. After clearing the back-log, the post-game phase starts. This phase includes testing, documentation, integration and deployment [7]. This paper recommends using pair programming in conjunction with scrum. This will improve the quality of the produced code and encourage shared responsibility amongst the team members. Feature Driven DevelopmentIt is claimed that the Feature Driven Development is suitable for development of critical systems [7]. Unlike other agile methodologies it builds a complete software architecture / model early in the development. It uses agility and iteration in its feature building phase. The use of comprehensive analysis and design allows it to use multiple teams working on different features simultaneously. This enables developers to use FDD in large teams developing critical systems. FDD starts with domain experts providing a walk through to the development team. The development team develops models for each area and simultaneously develops a model for the entire system. The development team uses these models and domain knowledge to build a comprehensive feature list and discusses the list with the client. After discussion and prioritization, the development team starts an iteration of planning and building features. FDD is useful for organisations which use waterfall methodology and want to adopt a more agile approach. The migration to FDD will pose less challenges compared to challenges associated with migrating to other agile methods [19]. If the FDD approach is adopted by small teams, this paper recommends using Agile Modeling as a supplement. Agile Modeling will help reduce the overheads generated by the FDD modelling phase, making it useful for small teams. It is further suggested that for large projects traditional requirement engineering should be used with some added agility [19]. ConclusionAgile methods are effective when teams are small, time-to-market is a significant competitive advantage and the requirements cannot be clearly defined at the start. The ‘New economy’ of 90s had all these elements. This led to an increase in the adoption of agile methods. The development of agile methodologies is part of a wider evolution of software development methodologies, with agile methodologies being the result of a continuous and distributed evolution which will remain hard to define. The focus of agile methodologies is on principles instead of precise processes. This will make it easier to integrate agile principles in traditional software development approaches. Communication methods which utilize tacit knowledge can be used in traditional software development approaches, where precisely defining requirements is time consuming. Early development of high priority features can also be integrated in traditional approaches. Agile methodologies like ‘Feature Driven Development’ will help increase the acceptance of agile methodologies in areas which require large teams and high quality. Many large organisations will customize specific agile methods to tailor these methodologies to meet their requirements. This means that the adoption of pure agile methods and use of agile principles in traditional software development methodologies will continue to grow. Employability skills Developers who use agile methods can improve their employability chances in multiple ways. Adoption of agile methodologies is increasing which means that developers experienced in agile methodologies are in short supply compared to the demand. Development using agile methodologies requires developers to have better then average skills [9]. Therefore developers who have experience in agile methods are considered better then average developers. In addition to these advantages developers using agile methods improve their generic employability skills. This section explains how agile methodologies are related to employability skills Communication skills Agile methodologies make up for the lack of comprehensive documentation by using intensive communication. Developers using agile methodologies improve their communication skills by interacting with clients and team members. Teamwork Agile methods lack detailed processes and the absence of detailed processes means that developers need to coordinate and work as a team. Detailed processes encourage bureaucratic working which discourages coordination. In agile methods developers need to coordinate their efforts on a regular basis in order to develop the software. Some agile methods like Extreme Programming use pair programming which requires extensive teamwork. Agile methods like scrum need daily meetings. Teamwork learned during agile development can be used at other careers. Problem SolvingAgile methods encourage creativity amongst team members. Developers are not bound by a certain process. They have the liberty to come up with the solution to both technical and decision making issues. Agile methodologies can be customized by developers. This further encourages creative thinking and problem solving. Self ManagementAgile methodologies encourage replacing central decision making with distributed decision making. This encourages developers to articulate their own ideas and vision. In software methodology like FDD developers take responsibility of their own class which encourages developers to use self management. Planning and organisingLack of detailed planning in agile methods does not imply absence of planning. Planning is an essential part of agile methods and agile methodologies help developers adopt pragmatic approaches towards planning. Agile methodologies prioritize software features and invest efforts in those features which bring more value to the client. This practice helps developers focus on high priority issues at their career. TechnologyFrequent release of working software encourages unit testing. Unit testing is usually done using automated methods. This encourages developers to develop and use technology for the development process. Agile methods like Feature Driven Development define a special role of toolsmith. The toolsmith’s responsibility is to use technology to develop tools for team members. Developers using agile methods understand the value of using technology in their careers. LearningThere is an opinion that learning is a core component of agile methodologies framework [12]. This opinion views agility as a continuous process. In each iteration, the developers’ learning is based on the results of the iteration and they use this learning in the next iteration. This learning activity enables developers to continuously improve the agile process. Learning activities associated with agile programming improve developer’s ability to learn at other jobs. Initiative and enterpriseAdapting to changing requirements is an integral part of agile methodologies. In the absence of a rigid process, developers are encouraged to take initiative and come up with solutions.

Heart of Redness Essays

Heart of Redness Essays Heart of Redness Essay Heart of Redness Essay 15 October 2013 Heart of Redness Paper The cattle killing movement in the 19th century has proven to be a complex topic, and it is difficult to unravel the different perspectives held about this historical event. Heart of Redness by Zakes Mda is a historical fiction novel, which portrays the different viewpoints held about the cattle killing, both while it was happening, and in the aftermath in almost present day, and portrays a lot of the personal feelings held about the cattle killing. The JAH Article, The Central Beliefs of the Cattle Killing, by Jeff Peires gives the different views on the cattle killing from the perspectives of istorians. In Heart of Redness, the tension between the Believers and the Unbelievers has built up immensely, and the historical reasons (and misbeliefs) behind the Believers and Unbelievers original views on the cattle-killing, as shown in the article, are important in analyzing the struggle for these two groups to cohesively live together. The Believers felt strongly that the cattle killing was necessary in order to purify the amaXhosa and allow for the ancestors to be resurrected and replenish their stock with new fields, and healthy cows. Peires states that a lot of historians pin he cattle killing movement on tradition. The amaXhosa practiced purifying themselves, and sacrificing before the lung sickness arose, but historians and anthropologists are mistaken in calling it traditional in any way. As Peires puts it, Whatever traditional patterns may have existed in Xhosaland before 1856, they certainly did not include mass destruction of basic subsistence needs or the expectation of an imminent resurrection of the dead (Peires, 44). The Believers would not have risked the lives of the entire community without truly believing that he ancestors would be resurrected. Peires mentions that the Xhosa believe that the dead are still walking among the living, but in a different form, so their resurrection is very plausible thought. This combined with the fact that people were devastated by the lung sickness in the cows, and the hope that they could be saved was very appeasing. They truly believed that this was the most effective way to ensure their prosperity. They also believed that witchcraft among the amaXhosa caused the lung sickness to contaminate the cattle. In Heart of Redness, Mhlakaza says The existing attle are rotten and unclean. They have been bewitched. They must all be destroyed. You have all been wicked, and therefore everything that belongs to you is bad (Mda, 54). The Believers thought that it was necessary to go through a cleansing stage in order to regain healthy cattle, because they thought the lung sickness was due to their bad behavior. Although killing all the cattle and burning the crops was extreme, and not very plausible, their reasoning behind the movement is spiritually based and Justifies their actions. On the other side of the spectrum, the Unbelievers efused to kill their cattle, because they did not believe that the ancestors would return with the slaughtered cattle, but that the cattle killing would cause the amaXhosa to be left even more devastated. They thought that the actions of the Bellevers were going to Tar. Atter lwln Klllea some 0T lwln- lwlns cattle ana trampled over his crops, he begins to burn the homesteads of the Unbelievers. Twin-Twin is outraged, and hid the rest of the cattle before the Believers killed all of them. After the First and Second Disappointments, the Believers began to fade in their trust in the cattle killing movement. This also gave the Unbelievers more reason to go against the cattle killing, and many people began to question the prophets. King Sarhili is especially wavering when he says, How can we trust these prophets when they fail to keep there word? Until the prophets keep their word I shall command that the slaughter of the cattle should stop (Mda, 130). The Unbelievers take this as a sign that the Believers are wrong in their position, and they end up siding with the colonizers on the issue of cattle killing. Although the cattle-killing movement as a whole was not plausible, a lot of the heories held by the colonists are even more incredulous. When the British governor says, This whole cattle-killing movement is not Just superstitious delusion. It is a plot by the two chiefs cold-blooded political scheme to involve the government in war, and to bring a host of desperate enemies on us, he implies that he thinks that the chiefs (Believers) are promoting the Cattle Killing for personal gain rather than communal gain through war (Mda, 135). Although the Cattle Killing movement itself was not as plausible a theory as the philosophy of those who did not participate, hese assumptions that the British were making about the Believers a re extreme. Not only is this fact portrayed in Heart of Redness, but Peires also states that this theory was a very commonly held belief among Governor Grey and the colonists. That being said, those who were spearheading the cattle-killing movement were not necessarily looking for war (although they believed that the ancestors would drive away enemies) but are looking for their ancestors to return with the prosperity (cattle and crops) of the amaXhosa, free of lung sickness. Peires states that after the first ailure of the prophecies, in August 1856, the believers seem to have reached the conclusion that they had erred in excluding the whites and the Christians, showing that the Believers were looking more for the well-being of the amaXhosa, rather than the downfall of the white settlers (Peires, 56). In Heart of Redness, this is portrayed when Mhlakaza invites the colonists to Join them in the cattle killing, so that they may experience redemption as well (Mda, 133). This clearly shows that the intentions of the Believers was to raise the lives the of amaXhosa, and not to start a war that would rive away the white settlers. Of course, the British refused to kill their cattle, and although this led to more tensions between the Believers and the colonists, the British ultimately decided to go with the more rational of the two sides. Both the novel and the article show that the cattle killing is a complex issue because it pits the spirituality of the amaXhosa against rational thought about depleting their already shrinking supplies. The lung sickness in the cattle brought many rifts into the Xhosa community, and the schism between the Believers and Unbelievers is still present in many current events today.

Prospects for the Future of Indigenous Peoples Essay

Prospects for the Future of Indigenous Peoples - Essay Example The world encompasses umpteenth groups of indigenous people scattered at various corners by different names and customs, be it the Caribe or Taino in the Crribean region, the Arawaks in Florida, West Indies, South America and Brazil, the Karibs or Caribs in the Lesser Antilles and Venezuela (Tainos Caribs). The emergence of such aboriginal groups can be traced back to as far as 6000 BC to 10000 BC (Tainos Caribs).and since then these native people have remained as the most ignored and disadvantaged mass of the world as they have been deprived of â€Å"their ways of life and their right to traditional lands, territories and natural resources† (UNPFII). Endeavors were made by some of the indigenous groups’ leaders, first by Haudensaunee Chief Deskaheh in 1923, who travelled all the way to Geneva for having a word with the League of Nations with t he hope of claiming his people’s to adhere to their own laws, land and faith, followed by T.W. Ratana, a Maori religious leader, who made his way to New Zealand to speak on behalf of his people for closing the Treaty of Waitangi, which denied their access to their own lands (UNPFII). However, both were prohibited to speak up for their rights and hence, were sent back empty-handed (UNPFII). The realization of the international community special attention required by the indigenous groups of the world is expected to bring an improved future for these aboriginals by means of various favorable policies (UNPFII). The United Nations Economic and Social Council created the Working Group on Indigenous Populations (WGIP) OF THE Sub Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights in 1982 (UNPFII). In 2007, the General Assembly addressed the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, which highlights the collective rights of these unprivileged section of the world (UNPFII). The implementation of this declaration makes it clear that the

Value Based Leader

PSC- 410 Servant Leadership Value-Based Leadership: Challenges and Opportunity A Value Based Leader is someone that align an organization’s values, mission, and processes into one standard style of management. Although a Value-Based Leader has the mission of the organization in mind when developing a strategy plan he or she will still face challenges. There are six challenges in which today’s organizations face and they are Technology, Ethics, Globalization, Knowledge, Diversity and Change. I would like to focus on two challenges faced by leaders today which are Change and Technology.The core values of a leader within an organization often establish the pattern of the employees in which he or she will lead. Robert McDonald, COO of Proctor and Gamble, believes that it is important for a good Leaders to be a leader with purpose as well as character which could assist a leaders in dealing with today’s challenges. If a leader leads with a purpose for the organization , he or she will share a desire for a positive end result or set an attainable goal in which all involved will be determined to see the purpose fulfilled with maximum outcome.With Change so often an organization has to adjust to these changes in order to adapt to whatever changes that will affect the end results. Sometimes the change for an organization could be as major as a change in the economy or as simple as a change in a style trend. In a recent CNNMoney article fashion trend setter Abercrombie & Fitch had a fall out due to declining sales. It was suggested that the companies challenges were due to macroeconomic conditions.Abercrombie clients are trendy teenagers and Twitter followers which snub the company due to a fall out of a popular teen idle which resulted in a drop in sales and a desire for the popular clothing line. It’s amazing that something as simple as a twit could affect the increase or decline in sales of a major organization. In this case, a Value-Based l eader would have to adjust to this change by assessing the current strategy, vision and the mission of the organization to better understand and support the changing trend of the current market.It’s not always easy to continue to do business as usual when the market has shifted but the organization has failed to adjust to these changes. This will have negative fallout for any company not willing to adjust and adapt. In the case of Abercrombie & Fitch, the role of a Servant Leader in this organization could be a benefit because the Servant leader would have the potential add value to this organization to ensure the success of the stakeholder by developing a new strategy plan.The twenty first century competency that would use in this situation would be a person with Cognitive skills and ability such as oral communication and to be able to solve the problems between Abercrombie and the needs of the changing market. Another challenge faced by today’s Value-Based Leadership is Technology. Technology could be defined in various ways within an organization to include Information Technology, cell phones, barcode scanners as well as DVD recorders. Technology within an organization has greatly improved the performance, productive and communication.Although technology has improved the way we do business it has not been without its challenges. Recently, several organizations have fallen victim to cyber-attacks by pranksters, criminal syndicates or foreign governmental agencies. Companies spend billions of dollars in security software in an attempt to secure their company’s information and the information of its customers. The growth or decline of an organization could increase or decrease if a company is exposed due to the lack of proper security policies.A Value-Based Leader would have to devise a stagey to review the company’s policies and procedures in order to prevent such things from happening. Although, security breaches are a growing tre nd within business it’s how the leadership of an organization handle these matters could define the direction in which the organization could take in the fall out. Most Competency Based leaders have an understanding of the mission of an organization and the things may lack can most often be taught or learned over the course of time.The focus is on the need of the organization based on goal set by management which could be totally focused on customer service or employee relations. In the newest challenges of an organization, the ability to adjust the changing demands and needs of an organization is a defining trait of a good Value Based leader. I strongly believe that leaders who are chosen for their competencies could also demonstrate servant leadership qualities if this attribute is cultivated as well as the individual have a heart to serve.Service is often a matter of the heart and a person would have to walk in humility in order to truly be able to demonstrate servant lead ership qualities. So often in the corporate world, people are focused on the mission of the organization, output and quantity rather than quality. A servant leader focuses on the moral and well-being of their employees which can contribute to increase productivity, quality customer service and increase profits for an organization. A Competency-Based leader could be taught good interpersonal skills in order to learn to deal with the growing diversity of a workplace.This will help them to learn the qualities of service by learning to deal with different personality, attitudes and cultures. I believe Servant Leadership is something that has the possibility to be taught to people with other leadership styles if they are truly open to learn how to serve. References Catherine Tymkiw (2012). Abercrombie & Fitch falls out of fashion, CNNMONEY Retrieved from www. cnn. com/ money Nicole Perlroth and Evenly Ruslie (2012) Security Start-Ups Catch Fancy of Investors (P. A. ) Retrieved from www. newyorktimes. com

Eric Rauchways Murdering McKinley Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Eric Rauchways Murdering McKinley - Essay Example Such a system thereby magnified some of the social challenges that the political regime appeared slow to resolve. The murder of President William McKinley was an epitome of the of social revolution portraying the urgency with which the populace wanted some of the social and economic challenges resolved as discussed in the analysis of Eric Rauchway’s Murdering McKinley in the essay below. The historical masterpiece analyses the circumstances in the country prior to the murder of the president, the subsequent speedy apprehension and execution of his murderer, Leon Czolgosz1. The change in the political regime in the country thereafter ended the implementation of some of the policies formulated by McKinley and instigated the Roosevelt progressivism policies that the people believed would solve most of the social and economic problems thereby providing America with a progressive future by creating a conducive environment for the development of the economy. The murder of McKinley thus appears to have been engineered by his successors and the populists who succeeded the government soon after his death. The book analyses such thus providing more insights to the death and the influence of such to the development of the modern day political, economic and social structures in the United States. An industrial America would present better living conditions for the populace. The economy would grow rapidly and the states would grow, as different industries would begin operations thereby employing millions of America. The development of cities as a modern settlement pattern brought people together thereby intensifying integration in the society. However, the American society was grappling with serious social and economic issues that would stifle the industrial revolution. The inability of the different regimes prior to McKinley’s tenure

Culture in an African Country Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Culture in an African Country - Essay Example Some of the several communities that live in this country include the kikuyu community, the Maasai, the Luo, the Kalejin community, the Samburu, and the Turkana community. The kikuyu This is the largest ethnic group in the Kenya. It is a sub tribe of the Abantu community. They speak the kikuyu language and migrated to the country four centuries ago. According to Kikuyu, the founder was of the tribe was known as Gikuyu. They had a Divine spirit called Ngai who lived at the top of Mount Kenya. Ngai gave him a wife known as Mumbi with whom they bore nine daughters. These daughters helped to create the nine sub clans of the kikuyu people. The kikuyu were highly successful in expanding throughout the fertile areas since they are a farming community. The main crops that they cultivated were bananas, sugarcane, millet, maize, yams, black beans, beans, and a variety of vegetables. This also formed their daily diet. In addition to cultivation, they also raised cattle, which would provide milk , hide, and skin. Goats and sheep could be used for sacrifices and purification ceremonies and rituals. The kikuyu community were traders who traded with their neighboring community through barter trade. They would organize local markets in populated areas where they exchanged cattle, agricultural produce, tobacco, iron implements, and ochre. Their main trading partners were the Maasai, Akamba, and Okiek. The kikuyu also had a well-organized political system, which would organize and administer the community. The political system would mainly be based on age groups and age sets where the elders had the mandate to administer. The basic administration unit was the family, which exists until today. The youths who wanted to become warriors in the community had to undergo circumcision. This also granted them the opportunity to marry daughters in their community. They later on graduated to the council of elders and a few of them made it into the secret council whose mandate was to settle disputes in the community (Muriuki 39-62). This culture has been incorporated in their modern lifestyles, as they are known to have an entrepreneurial culture. This has led to rural urban migration are the dominant community living in urban centers. The Maasai The Maasai had a religion with a divine spirit known Enkai. They believe one day the heaven split, and the first Maasai descended from heaven, with a large herd of cattle. They offer sacrifice of a cow to their God during important ceremonies. In addition, they have a diviner known as Laibon who they consult whenever there emerges a misfortune. The Maasai in Kenya is directly related to the Maasai in the neighboring country of Tanzania. They are Nilotic speakers who are very closely related to the Turkana, the Kalenjin, and the Samburu tribes in Kenya. They are largely pastoralists’ community who rear unusually large herd of cattle. This is the backbone of their economy. They are a sign of wealth and a measure of value to them. The young men are responsible for herding the cattle to different parts of the country where there are greener pastures. They have a culture of raiding homes to steal livestock from different communities. Similarly, to the Gikuyu community, the Maasai community politics is based on age group systems, which separate young men and

Software Project Management

Software Project Management Project Proposal Introduction The organization in which the project is to be carried out is ******** It is a multinational computer technology corporation, which is involved in developing, manufacturing, licensing and supporting a wide range of software products for computing devices. The vision of the company is to develop a workstation where the software runs onto every desk and sooner or later in every home. The company follows the principles and corporate code of conduct. The objective of the company is to delight its customers, employees and shareholders with the help of delivering advance technology. The company wants to enlarge its leadership in the field of manufacturing and technology. It wants to increase its profitability worldwide by satisfying the customer needs and wants to excel in customer orientation. Managers from Sales, Consulting and IT departments have identified a problem that has reduced productivity to unacceptable levels. The current email system is causing significant business interruptions and must be updated. The current system is disjointed and much of the technology is outdated. Name of the project and persons associated with project Name of the project: E-Mail System Up gradation, Expansion and Integration Project Proposer: The top authority person and the member from IT department are the proposers of the project. They provide policy definition to the Project team. They resolve all policy issues with the appropriate policy owners in order to provide a clear, decisive definition. They are the persons who make final decisions and resolves conflicts or issues regarding project expectations across organizational and functional areas (Agarwal Mishra, 2007). Project sponsor: The project sponsors provide executive team approval and sponsorship for the project. Project Stakeholders: The project stakeholders include Sales, Consulting and IT department management leaders and end users. They are the key provider of requirements and recipient of project deliverable and associated benefits. The majority of stakeholders for this project will be agency heads (Agarwal Mishra, 2007). Project Managers: ****** are the IT Department Head. They provide overall management to the project. They are accountable for establishing a Project Charter, developing and managing the work plan, securing appropriate resources and delegating the work and insuring successful completion of the project. All project team members report to the project manager (Agarwal Mishra, 2007). Project team: The team will include 2 executives or support managers, 1 market analysts, 2 product designers and 1 financial manager. The project team members are involved in analyzing, designing and ultimately improving or replacing the business processes. Objective of the project The aims and objectives of the project are: To develop fast e-mail system in the company To expand the existing activities or production facilities. Avoidance of the delay, technical flaws and drawing defects (Agarwal Mishra, 2007). Developing new servers, software and protocol in order to remain competitive Updating the technology and opening of additional accounts online. Proper tooling and techniques (Agarwal Mishra, 2007). Proper control over chain reaction activities. To meet the changing demands of the customers (Ramaswamy Namakumari, 2007). To earn more revenues and profits. Project Deliverables A consolidated e-mail software and network which has upgraded and modernized servers, pertinent protocol, staff trained in new software, hardware and protocol, functioning system help desk, system commissioning report and stakeholder project sign off (Agarwal Mishra, 2007) Technical requirements for the standard of performance A comprehensive range of e-learning tools and a new Email Standards and Protocols would be established and training will be provided to all departments. All the current email users shall be converted into the new system, and 500 new users that did not have email before shall be added. The users would have both LAN and remote access to email. Some help desk and support infrastructure shall be set-up to accommodate the new system. The relevant equipment would be salvaged (Agarwal Mishra, 2007). The users’ PCs would be upgraded to accommodate the new email system. It is expected that implementation and successful completion of this project will reduce operational expenses and increase productivity to create a net value of $200,000 per year (Agarwal Mishra, 2007). Major Milestones The milestones of this project include both the technical as well as the behavioral aspects like designing the up gradation project, selecting the team who needs to undergo this project, appointment of the team, which is responsible for the project and timely evaluation and assessment of the project (Agarwal Mishra, 2007). Project scope The proposed project will completely consolidate the old systems, update hardware and greatly diminish time and work losses due to technical and procedural e-mail communication problems. This change is necessary for company to be sustainable, provide timely service to the customers and ultimately remain relevant in today’s competitive market Includes: 2500 identified end users from the 12 departments and offices will be provided with the equipments that can operate the new system. Training will be provided to the employees for the use of the new system and system protocols (Agarwal Mishra, 2007). All the 2500 users will be converted in to the new system. In this new system, there will be LAN and remote access will be offered to the users. The system will be set up by the support infrastructure and help desk. The system will function after upgrading the PC’s. Does Not Include: Accounts or training in excess of 2500 are not part of the scope of this project. This effort will not extend into other aspects of ACME, Inc.’s information systems but will be confined to the e-mail system solely. Project management, reporting and controlling In order to implement a project in a successful manner, able corporation should first select a project management team comprising of professionals such as engineers, technicians, managers and accountants with responsibilities in their respective fields. The team should be headed by a project manager with individuals within defined parameters to achieve a common goal, i.e. to complete the implementation within projected schedule, projected cost and deliver the project with defined quality(Agarwal Mishra, 2007). The team members have to report timely and directly to the project manager. Project overruns and project failure are due to the cumulative effects of a number of reasons. Thus, a manager has to play a significant role in completion of project. Project priorities The project aims to accomplish all the set objectives. However, it emphasizes on certain tasks on a priority basis like up gradation of the skills and knowledge of the trainees, reinforcement of the value and ethics of the organization, reviewing and evaluation of the existing work-patterns in the Able Corporation, minimization of the redundant practices in the organization, completion of the project within the scheduled time-frame and maintaining high-quality standards in the due course of the project. Resources Required: A variety of resources will be needed to implement the project of new product development. The main resources, which are considered in the project, are the financial resources and workforce or staff of the company. With the help of the team as well the staff, the project can be completed rapidly and before the decided duration (Resource consideration, 2008). The project can be successful only when a firm is capable of utilizing its limited economic resources optimally. For the completion of the project, it is necessary that the resources are fully allocated as they are limited (Resource consideration, 2008). Work Break down Structure The work breakdown structure (WBS) presents a systematic and logical breakdown of the project into its component parts. The company is facing decrease in the productivity levels due to problems in the email system. The email system used currently is causing interruptions and the technology has become obsolete. The email system should be updated in the organization. There are 500 new users who do not have accounts. This will require an additional investment. For making an effective communication process, the Able Corporation has to be technologically advanced (Work Breakdown Structure (WBS), 2008). WBS in the email system project is broken into a logical series of smaller tasks, each of which is chosen for size and scope to fit it with the project management structure so that it can be subjected to efficient planning and execution (Work Breakdown Structure (WBS), 2008). It is believed that during the process of e-mail system up gradation, the work of the project would be broken down and consequently integrated with the process of organizing the project. The organization of the project would be further broken down to the functional groups of the project team (Agarwal Mishra, 2007). In this case, the WBS would represent the division and sub-division of work to the level of work packages. Cost estimates It is estimated that the task of forming the project team, plan phase and project estimation would be completed in 4 days and would incur a cost of about $15,000. The selection of project staff for phase would be completed in a time of 7 days with an expenditure of $7,000. However, for securing the commitments for staff availability, it is estimated that a period of 5 days would be taken and nearly $1,000 would be incurred on this task (Work Breakdown Structure (WBS), 2008). Near about 3 days would be required to complete the identification and allocation of management clerical overheads to the phase by incurring a cost of $7,000. In order to evaluate user system requirements, duration of 25 days would be required with an expenditure of $6,000. The task of Network suitability, test and changing the control procedures would prove to be detrimental for the final outcome and success of the project. As a result, a great deal of emphasis would be laid on this task in terms of time and money. It would thus require an extended period of 41 days and a heavy expenditure of $15,000. To develop the support infrastructure for the helpdesk, it is estimated that a period of 30 days would be sufficient with an expenditure of $22,000 (Work Breakdown Structure (WBS), 2008). Thus, this task would also require significant attention from the people involved in the project. To complete the task of implementation, 10 days would be warranted with a cost of $15,000. Also, an expenditure of $10,000 would be incurred on salvaging the equipments in a period of 10 days. Finally, a time of 7 days would be required to deploy the e-mail systems by incurring a cost of $9,000. References Agarwal, N.P. Mishra, B.K. (2007) Project management (4th Edition). New Delhi: Ramesh Book Depot. Mathew, M.J. (2000). Sales Management and Sales Promotion (3rd Revised Edition), Jaipur: RBSA Publishers. Resource Considerations (2008) Retrieved May 29, 2008 from http://www.utexas.edu/computer/lrp/ch6_res.htm Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) (2008). Retrieved June 25, 2008 from http://www.hyperthot.com/pm_wbs.htm